Osman Gazi
He was a Turkic sınır beyi (bey of the border) who initially raided Roman villages in the name of the Seljuk Sultan. Hence his title Gazi meaning warrior of faith. However, after gaining considerable authority and prestige, he declared his beylik independent in 1299. He is believed to be from the Kayı tribe of the Oghuz Turks.
Two of his major accomplishments were besieging Bursa, one of the major trade cities of the Marmara Sea (though he died before the siege was completed), and creating a duality in public law. The latter was possible due to his privileging Turkic traditions over Islamic law, resulting in the creation of örf law, meaning private or sultan’s law. This gave the Ottomans more flexibility in state affairs in the long run. The örf law was not commonly used until the 15th century, but its positive effects were seen in the future.
Orhan Gazi
Orhan completed the siege of Bursa and turned it into the new capital.
After his father died Orhan proposed to his brother co-rulership but the latter refused saying the beylik should not be divided.
The beylik armies were composed of armed vassals and volunteers who disbanded after each campaign. Orhan’s brother sought to ensure future success by forming a corps of paid infantry, the Yaya or piyade, divided into units with high pay, which soon caused concern due to their pride. To counter this, Orhan, advised by his brother Alaeddin and Kara Halil Çandarlı, created the Janissary corps. Çandarlı proposed recruiting children from conquered places, arguing it was lawful and beneficial as it would educate them and improve their lives. This policy, initiated with a thousand boys from Christian families, led to the formation of the renowned Janissaries, who played a crucial role in the Ottoman military until abolished by Sultan Mahmud II in 1826.
Orhan’s general policy of expansion was to raid bordering villages and take advantage of Byzantine political instability. He initially captured Nicaea (İznik) and İzmit. Then he incorporated the Karasi beylik, which ruled the Asian side of the Dardanelles Strait and captured the first foothold of the Ottomans in Europe.
Murat I (Hudâvendigâr)
He is nicknamed Hudâvendigâr meaning “the gift of god”. He conquered Edrine, Filibe, Sofia, Manastır and he turned Serbia and Bulgaira into vassals and he collected yearly taxes from the Byzantines. In his in his 27 year reign he won 37 big battles never losing a single one.
He turned Edirne into the co-capital of the Ottoman State. He is known to not be a devote muslim. In many Turkish sources, it is traditionally stated that Murad I was targeted by the dagger of the wounded Milos, the son-in-law of the Serbian Despot Lazar, while inspecting the battlefield; he was taken to his tent but could not be saved and died.
Beyazid I (Thunderbolt)
He came to rule 1389 and began unifying Anatolia under Ottoman rule, carefully justifying wars against Muslim states with legal rulings to maintain the support of gazis. In 1390, he conquered several beyliks and forced Karaman to accept peace in 1391. Bayezid then conquered Kastamonu and Sinop, but his campaign was cut short. He earned his nickname by swiftly transferring his armies across the empire to fight in the first battle of Kosovo.
From 1389 to 1395, Bayezid expanded into Bulgaria and northern Greece. In 1394, he attacked Wallachia but was defeated at the Battle of Rovine. He also besieged Constantinople and defeated a Christian crusade at the Battle of Nicopolis in 1396, continuing the siege until 1402.
Bayezid’s campaigns extended his empire across Thrace, Macedonia, Bulgaria, Serbia, and parts of Anatolia. In 1397, he defeated and annexed Karaman. This violated an accord with Timur, leading to the Battle of Ankara in 1402, where Bayezid was captured by Timur.
Bayezid’s captivity sparked a civil war among his sons, known as the Ottoman Interregnum, which ended with Mehmed I’s victory. Bayezid’s other son, Mustafa Çelebi, later attempted two unsuccessful rebellions against Mehmed and Murad II.
Mehmed I (the Restorer)
After the Ottoman Interregnum, Mehmed I crowned himself sultan in Edirne, making it the primary capital of the Ottoman Empire while Constantinople remained under Byzantine control. He consolidated his power, expanded the empire into parts of Albania, the Çandarlı Beylik, and the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia, and is often referred to as the “second founder” of the Ottoman Sultanate.
Shortly after taking the throne, Mehmed faced a challenge from his brother Mustafa Çelebi, who demanded a partition of the empire. Mehmed defeated Mustafa, who then fled to Thessaloniki and was later exiled to Lemnos by the Byzantine emperor Manuel II Palaiologos.
Mehmed also dealt with a potential threat from his nephew Orhan, who was allegedly involved in a plot against him orchestrated by Manuel II. Mehmed had Orhan blinded to neutralize this threat.
The empire was still reeling from the instability caused by the Battle of Ankara and the civil wars, which led to a powerful social and religious movement led by Sheikh Bedreddin. Bedreddin, a respected Muslim Sufi and theologian, promoted a populist and syncretic1 religious movement aimed at eliminating social and religious differences. This movement gained traction in the European part of the empire and western Anatolia.
In 1416, Sheikh Bedreddin initiated a rebellion against Mehmed I. After a four-year struggle, Mehmed’s grand vizier Bayezid Pasha captured Bedreddin, who was subsequently hanged in Serres in 1420.
Murad II
Murad II’s reign began with significant internal strife. The Byzantine Emperor Manuel II released the pretender Mustafa Çelebi, who claimed to be the legitimate heir to Bayezid I, with the stipulation that Mustafa would cede key cities to the Byzantines if he succeeded.
Mustafa quickly gained support, defeated Murad’s general Bayazid Pasha, and declared himself Sultan of Adrianople. However, Murad outmaneuvered Mustafa, captured him in Gallipoli, and executed him. Murad then turned against the Byzantines, initiating a siege on Constantinople. During this siege, the Byzantines, with the help of some Turkish Anatolian states, incited Murad’s younger brother Küçük Mustafa to rebel and besiege Bursa. Murad abandoned the siege of Constantinople to deal with this threat, eventually capturing and executing Küçük Mustafa. Murad also annexed the troublesome Anatolian states, integrating them into the Ottoman Sultanate.
Murad II faced wars on multiple fronts, including against Venice, the Karamanid Beylik, Serbia, and Hungary. He defeated the Karamanids in 1428 and captured Thessalonica from Venice in 1430. Murad expanded Ottoman territories in the Balkans, annexing Serbia in 1439. In 1444, he triumphed against a coalition led by John Hunyadi at the Crusade of Varna.
Murad briefly abdicated in 1444 in favor of his son Mehmed II, but a Janissary revolt forced him to return. He secured a victory at the Second Battle of Kosovo in 1448. Turning east, he defeated forces in Anatolia, including Timur’s son, Shah Rokh, and the Beylik of Karamanid and Çorum-Amasya. He fell ill and died in 1451, succeeded by Mehmed II.
Mehmed II (the Conquerer)
When Mehmed II ascended the throne for the second time in 1451, he focused on strengthening the Ottoman navy and preparing for the conquest of Constantinople. He built the Rumelihisarı fortress on the European side of the Bosphorus to complement the Anadoluhisarı on the Asian side, thereby controlling the strait.
Mehmed began the siege of Constantinople in 1453 with an army of up to 200,000 troops, extensive artillery, and a navy of 320 vessels. After a fifty-seven-day siege, during which he transported eighty warships overland to outflank the Byzantine defenses, the city fell on May 29, 1453. Mehmed moved the Ottoman capital to Constantinople. Following the conquest, Mehmed claimed the title of Caesar of the Roman Empire (Kayser-i Rûm), supported by the Eastern Orthodox Church, and recognized by the scholar George of Trebizond. He installed Gennadius Scholarius as the ecumenical patriarch, solidifying his legitimacy. Mehmed’s claim was based on the assertion that Constantinople, the seat of the Roman Empire since 330 AD, conferred imperial authority to its conqueror. He went on to conquer the Despotate of Morea and the Empire of Trebizond, absorbing the last vestiges of Byzantine rule. He further conquered Bosnia, Albania, Venetians colonies on the Adriatic Sea he vassalized Wallachia, Moldova and Crimean Tatar Khaganate. Mehmed’s conquests greatly enhanced the prestige and power of the Ottoman Empire.
Mehmed II invited Italian artists, humanists, and Greek scholars to his court, allowing the Byzantine Church to continue and commissioning translations of Christian doctrine into Turkish. His court featured a rich library with works in Greek, Persian, and Latin. Mehmed also invited Muslim scientists and artists, founded a university, and built significant structures such as the Fatih Mosque, Topkapı Palace, and the Tiled Kiosk.
Mehmed II permitted religious freedom within his empire, as demonstrated by the Ahdname2 of Milodraž , which granted Bosnian Franciscans freedom of worship and movement.
His military and administrative elite were often recruited through the Devshirme system, which took Christian youths, converted them to Islam, and trained them for service, creating a meritocracy that produced many high-ranking officials. Mehmed also established the millet system (personnalité des lois) in Constantinople, appointing Gennadius Scholarius as the religious leader for Orthodox Christians, ensuring relative autonomy while transforming the city into the Ottoman capital. His centralization efforts included building a loyal bureaucracy and codifying governmental roles through kanunname, enhancing his authority and the empire’s efficiency.
Beyazid II (the Just)
Bayezid II ascended the Ottoman throne in 1481, following the death of his father Mehmed II, informed by the grand vizier Karamani Mehmed Pasha. His reign was marked by internal strife, particularly with his brother Cem Sultan, who sought support from the Mamluks and later the Knights of St. John before being handed over to Pope Innocent VIII.
Bayezid managed to secure his rule and engaged in campaigns to conquer Venetian possessions in Morea, enhancing Ottoman naval power in the Eastern Mediterranean. However, his reign was challenged by rebellions in the east, notably from the Kızılbaş, backed by Shah Ismail I of Iran. Despite these challenges, Bayezid focused on centralizing his authority and maintaining domestic stability, earning him the title “the Just.”
Bayezid II is notable for his patronage of both western and eastern cultures and his humanitarian efforts, such as sending the Ottoman Navy to evacuate Jews and Muslims expelled from Spain during the Inquisition in 1492. He welcomed these refugees, granting them citizenship and ensuring their protection, which significantly enriched the Ottoman Empire with new ideas and craftsmanship. His reign saw a cultural flourishing among Jews, who established the first printing press in Constantinople and contributed to various scholarly fields. Bayezid’s final years were marked by a succession battle between his sons Selim and Ahmet, culminating in Selim’s revolt and Bayezid’s abdication in 1512. Bayezid died shortly after his abdication and was buried next to the Bayezid Mosque in Istanbul.
Selim I (the Resolute)
By 1512, Şehzade Ahmed was seen as the favored successor to Bayezid II, who had grown reluctant to continue ruling. However, this announcement angered Selim, who rebelled against his father. Despite initially losing a battle, Selim ultimately succeeded in deposing Bayezid, marking the first instance of an Ottoman prince leading a rebellion against his father. Selim’s victory led to Bayezid’s exile to Dimetoka, where he died shortly thereafter. Upon seizing the throne, Selim executed his brothers and nephews to eliminate potential rivals, reflecting the fratricidal policies that had emerged from previous internal conflicts.
Selim I’s reign was marked by significant military campaigns and religious strife. Facing the threat of the Safavid Empire under Shah Ismail, who had promoted Shia Islam and supported uprisings in Anatolia, Selim engaged in brutal suppression of Shiite populations within the Ottoman domains. His efforts culminated in the decisive Battle of Çaldıran in 1514, where he defeated Ismail and captured Tabriz. Selim also extended Ottoman control over the Mamluk Sultanate, securing Syria, Palestine, and Egypt, and gaining access to the holy cities of Mecca and Medina.
Suleiman I (the Magnificent or Lawgiver)
Suleiman the Magnificent, upon ascending the throne, embarked on a series of ambitious military campaigns. His early focus included the conquest of Belgrade in 1521, a significant achievement that his great-grandfather Mehmed II had failed to secure. Suleiman’s successful capture of Belgrade was crucial in eliminating a key obstacle to further Ottoman expansion in Europe.
However, instead of immediately advancing into Hungary, Suleiman directed his attention to the Eastern Mediterranean, targeting the island of Rhodes. The siege of Rhodes in 1522 was costly for the Ottomans, with heavy casualties reported, but it resulted in the surrender of the Knights Hospitaller.
Following the conquest of Rhodes, Suleiman resumed his European campaigns. He defeated Louis II of Hungary at the Battle of Mohács in 1526. The death of Louis led to a power struggle between the Habsburgs and John Zápolya, whom Suleiman supported. The conflict continued with a failed siege of Vienna in 1529 and a second unsuccessful attempt in 1532. Despite these setbacks, the Treaty of Constantinople in 1533 established Ottoman suzerainty over Ferdinand I and secured an annual tribute.
In the 1540s, Suleiman capitalized on renewed conflict in Hungary to expand Ottoman control. Habsburg attempts to retake Buda were repelled, and Suleiman captured several Habsburg fortresses. The resulting treaty in 1547 saw Ferdinand renounce his claim to Hungary and pay tribute, recognizing Suleiman’s dominance.
Suleiman’s foreign policy also involved significant engagements with the Safavid Empire. After initial attempts to consolidate power in the region, Suleiman launched a series of campaigns against Shah Tahmasp, achieving temporary gains but ultimately facing a stalemate. The Peace of Amasya in 1555 established a relatively stable border, dividing contested territories between the two empires.
In the Indian Ocean, Suleiman sought to challenge Portuguese dominance and bolster trade with the Mughal Empire. Ottoman naval campaigns, including the capture of Aden and support for the Adal Sultanate, aimed to counter Portuguese influence. The Ottomans also established an alliance with Aceh in 1564, further extending their reach.
In the Mediterranean, Suleiman faced conflicts with Spain and its allies. The Franco-Ottoman alliance, formed in response to Habsburg expansion, saw joint military efforts against Charles V. However, the Great Siege of Malta in 1565 ended in defeat for the Ottomans, despite their initial success. The resilience of the Maltese defenders, supported by a Spanish relief force, resulted in a significant Ottoman loss.
Legal Reforms
Suleiman’s legal reforms were significant. While the Shari’ah (Islamic law) was the divine law and beyond alteration, Suleiman focused on creating the Kanuns, or canonical legislation, which dealt with areas like criminal law, land tenure, and taxation. He meticulously compiled and streamlined the judgments of his predecessors into a cohesive legal code, ensuring consistency and clarity in the empire’s laws. This legal code, known as the kanun-i Osmani, lasted for over three centuries and became a cornerstone of Ottoman legal practice.
Protection of Jewish Subjects
Suleiman also made strides in protecting minority communities within his empire. At the suggestion of Moses Hamon, a Jewish advisor, he issued the decree of protection banning blood libels against Jews. This act of tolerance was a significant gesture in a period often marked by religious intolerance.
Artistic and Cultural Flourishing
Under Suleiman’s patronage, the Ottoman Empire experienced a cultural renaissance. The Ehl-i Hiref, or “Community of the Craftsmen,” flourished, bringing together artisans from across the empire and beyond. Suleiman’s support for the arts led to a blend of Arabic, Turkish, and European influences, establishing a distinctive Ottoman artistic legacy.
Suleiman himself was an accomplished poet, writing in both Persian and Turkish under the pseudonym Muhibbi (“Lover”). His poetry often reflected his philosophical and spiritual views, and some of his verses have become part of Turkish folklore.
Architectural Achievements
Suleiman is perhaps best known for his monumental architectural projects. His chief architect, Mimar Sinan, was responsible for some of the most iconic structures of the Ottoman era. Sinan’s work marked the zenith of Ottoman architecture, with Suleiman’s patronage ensuring that Constantinople (modern-day Istanbul) became a major center of Islamic civilization. Other significant projects included the restoration of the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem and the renovation of the Kaaba in Mecca.
Suleiman’s reign is often regarded as the golden age of the Ottoman Empire, characterized by legal reform, cultural renaissance, and architectural innovation.