The Education of the Elites
In the Ottoman Empire, nobility was not a hereditary class but rather a right granted through regional administration and material wealth. Land rights in the Ottoman Empire were privileges granted by the sultan and were given with great care and merit. Nobility was solely reserved for members of the ruling family.
In Turkish state tradition, authority must be earned. For example, in the Göktürk Khaganate, the khagan was elected with the kut (divine mandate) bestowed by Tengri (god), and if the khagan could not govern the country effectively in war and peace, it was believed that they had lost the kut, leading to his removal and the selection of a new capable khagan at a toy (tribal council). This understanding continued into the 10th century with the Oghuz Confederation.
The situation was somewhat different for the Seljuks. The Seljuk sultan’s family had hereditary privileges, but these privileges were shared with vakıfs1, religious leaders, and regional beys. This fragmentation was one of the factors leading to the state’s downfall. The Ottomans appear to have learned from this. The sultan only delegated his absolute power with appointed officials who have completed a merit-based and bureaucratically accepted career path with no hereditary rights. This is more akin to the administration of the early Roman Empire. Ottoman political apparatus was heavily based on merit.
But how was this merit determined?
For those who study in the medreses2 there was an examination to enter into the ulemâ (clergy). For the ilmiye class (religious scholars), this exam was conducted by prominent teachers of the Istanbul medreses, known as Istanbul rûusu. A person who passes this exam can become a müftü (Islamic jurist), müderris (professor), or kadı (judge), and eventually even a şeyhülislam (chief Islamic scholar). If a graduate of a medrese wants to attain a civil service position, the result of this examination is also considered.
Those out side of medreses were more noumerous to join civil service and their parcours was also very differet. For a civil service positions in the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries, non-Muslim children (and also Muslims) brought from the Balkans and the Caucasus through the devşirme system, conducted every three to five years, were divided into two groups.
One group was selected to become Janissaries. They first became acemi oğlan (novices), learned Turkish and Islam in nearby villages, and advanced through the ranks. They could rise as high as the position of grand vizier. Very famous grand viziers like Köprülü Mehmet Pasha and Kemankeş Kara Mustafa Pasha, even though they were illiterate, were brought up from the Janissary corps.
The second group is directly assigned to schools known as Enderûn.
The Enderûn
Enderûn meaning “the interior,” was the name given to palace schools. In the Topkapı Enderûnu, which is the most prestiges one, lived ak hadımağas (white eunuchs)3 and içoğlans.4 Enderûn contributed to the administration and military of the empire until 1831. It was both a school and a service organization.
Here, we talk about three major institutions: the Edirne Sarayı (saray meaning palace), the Galata Sarayı, and the İbrahim Pasha Sarayı.
People who graduated from these schools attained important positions in the state. At worst, they became timarlı sıpahis(cavalrymen with land grants), or at least they became members of the Altı Bölük Halkı (six cavalry people: cavalry that protected the palaces). This was a privileged position, and they could easily rise to the rank of palace sergeant and even higher positions.
However, the most gifted people from the Enderûn schools were brought the to Topkapı Enderûnu. A young man who came here at the age of 15-16 or even younger would have gone through a very rigorous path.
Where did these young men come from?
They could come from distant small villages or wealthy commercial towns. They could come from poor families as well as families of high-ranking religious officials. For example, Sokullu Mehmet Pasha, who ruled the Ottoman Empire for the longest time as the viziers, came from a well-educated and respected priestly family and was voluntarily given to the state after his family was convinced by state officails. Additionally, children were recruited from former Anatolian beyliks (principalities). Families who previously controlled the beyliks could give their children to join the bureaucracy. For instance, Kızılahmedli Mustafa Pasha came from the İsfendiyaroğlu family.
These young men would come to either the Büyük Oda (Grand Room) or the Küçük Oda (Small Room) which are situated on either side of the Babüssaade (Gate of Felicity) on the third courtyard of the palace. These were the preparatory classes of the Tapkapı Enderûnu.
The Seferli, kiler (storehouse), hazine (treasury) dormitories, and Has Oda (Private Room) were the upper classes. The içoğlans received education in these rooms and dormitories.
İçoğlans initially learned Turkish, the Quran, hunting, wrestling, javelin, and mace as basic education. In the more advanced classes, they studied Arabic, Persian, history, and law. They were trained with such discipline that even their bathing hours were predetermined.
The education lasted for up to 8 years, and during the “exits” held every few years, less gifted içoğlans in Küçük and Büyük odas were promoted to tımarlı sıpahi (cavalryman with a land grant) or given a minor bureaucratic position. Some also joined the scribes class at the Bab-ı Ali (the Sublime Porte) and became registrars.
They were given an 8 akçe stipend, which was a very small amount, but there wasn’t much to spend it on anyway. They were provided with special clothing, and because they tucked their skirts into their belts while working, they were called “dolamalılar” (the tucked ones). When these young men in the two dormitories shone with their intelligence, effort, and merit, they moved to higher dormitories and were called “kaftanlılar” (the ones with robes).
After dark, no one could go outside. No one is seen coming or going in the courtyards at night. In the dormitories, the Quran is read, poetry and art are discussed. The latest debates on science and mathematics are held. If there are those doing calligraphy, they put the final touches on their art. They sleep without staying up too late. In the morning, they go to the bath, then perform prayers. They receive very intense and strict training.
Although not as much as in the medreses, they too, receive solid religious education. Among the Enderûn alumni, from time to time, there have been religious scholars, and even one şeyhülislam (chief Islamic scholar).
Another important feature of Enderûn is the sports education. All types of sports are practiced. The fact that the sultans themselves were good athletes is due to their practicing in these sports competitions with the Enderun students.
Being an Enderûn student also means being involved in the finer aspects of literature and art. Although not everyone is required to excel in these fields, significant calligraphers, musicians, and even poets have emerged from the Enderûn. For example, Ali Ufki Bey, who wrote the most comprehensive collection on Turkish music, was an Enderûn student. One of the most important characteristics of the Enderûn students is learning to read and write at a very advanced level. They learn a sophisticated form of Ottoman Turkish, which is heavily laden with Arabic and Persian words. These students could follow bureaucratic correspondence in this language very well.
Promotions in the Enderûn occur as follows. The Odabaşı (head of the room) has the authority to present candidates to the sultan, and the sultan gives importance to these promotions. Those to be promoted from the lower room to the upper room are taken “under the robe.” These robed ones, who accompany the sultan on military campaigns, are called “seferli” or “kaftanlı.” Today, Ottoman costumes are exhibited in the place where these seferli‘s dormitory used to be.
The Kilerli dormitory currently houses the administrative offices of the Topkapı Palace. This dormitory of the Enderun was a special class responsible for all kitchen and food-related services of the palace, serving meals to approximately 5,000 people daily, and overseeing those involved in food preparation. The number of Kilarlis was around 80, but there were about 100 more people working under them.
Right next to the seferli dormitory is the pavilion of Sultan Mehmed II, which, after his death, started to be used as the palace treasury. Those responsible for the protection of the treasury stayed in the Hazine dormitory. The Hazinedar Ağa is the head of this dormitory and is responsible for overseeing and organizing the jewelry and palace arts. Like the Persian and Roman palaces, the Ottoman palace represented the pinnacle of imperial arts. First and foremost, diplomatic gifts sent to envoys and other administrators were produced. In the 19th century, this manufactury also produced carpets and furniture. The best bookbindings, the finest jewelers, and the best carpenters worked in what is today known as the Darphane (imperial mint) section of the palace. These works were supervised by the Hazinedar Ağa and the Enderûn members in the Hazine dormitory.
The highest class among the Enderûn staff in the Saray-ı Amire (Topkapı palace) was the Has Odalıs. The Has Oda was the sultan’s most private room. Over time, it became home to very important treasures. There were 40 Has Odacıs who could enter and supervise this room. The Has Odabaşı (chief of the Has Oda) held the rank of vizier in the 16th century. Most of those who rose to the Has Oda were then assigned outside the palace; those who remained in the palace were few. They would leave Enderûn with the rank of brigadier general.
After Sultan Selim’s conquests of Egypt and the Hijaz in the 16th century, the sacred relics were brought to Istanbul, and the Has Odalılar (members of the Has Oda) were responsible for safeguarding this treasure. At the request of Hürrem Sultan, when Sultan Süleyman moved the harem from the old palace to Topkapı Palace, the Has Oda was entirely dedicated to Enderûn and became the room for the sacred relics from being the sultan’s personal room.
The Enderûn Ağaları Mosque is a mosque built during the Mehmed II’s period and is adorned with magnificent tiles; however, these tiles are not present throughout the entire mosque. Only the Has Odalılar worship in the tiled section, while the remaining Enderûn staff pray in the whitewashed section at the back. Sultans would also often perform the morning prayer here with the Enderûn staff. Today, this mosque is used as the Topkapı Manuscript Library.
Right next to it is the Library of Ahmed III. It is located right in the center of the third courtyard. When this library was first built, it was used exclusively by Ahmed III, but it was later assigned to the Enderûn. It contains works in Turkish, Arabic, Persian, Latin, and Greek. The Enderun staff spend their free time reading here.
During the Tanzimat reforms Topkapı Enderûnu was closed down. One of the other Enderûns the Galata Sarayı Enderûnu located in Galata (Pera, todays Beyoğlu) was still functionnal and it became the main school from which the late Ottoman elites and bureaucrats graduated from. It took the name Mekteb-i Sultani (the imperial school) today it still is the most important and well reputed high school and oparates under the name of Galatasaray High School.
- A moral legal. personality with privileges that accomplish a certain social task. Sort of like a private ministry. ↩︎
- A Medrese is a higher education institution until the 19th century all subjects could be thought at a medrese but with the tanzimat reforms medreses became purely religious institution. ↩︎
- In most asian courts to prevent mingling between palace workers and royal woman eunuchs (a man who has been castrated) worked. In the Ottoman palace there were two types of eunuchs: Kara hadımağa (black eunuch) and Ak hadımağa (white eunuch). Kara hadımağas mostly worked in the Harem (sultan’s private palace) and ak hadımağas lived in the Enderûn. ↩︎
- İçoğlanı (interor boys) refers to male servants working in the Inner Palace. They were brought to the palace through devşirme. They were both students and palace officials. ↩︎