The Imperial Council

Divan-ı Hümayun (Kubbealtı) 

The Turkish word "divan" is borrowed from the Persian word "dīwān" (ديوان), which means notebook, especially an official register, account book and also poetry collection.1
Divan-ı Hümayun (The Imperial Council) is the ruler's consultative assembly. Also refered to as Kubbealtı which translates to "under the dome" or "beneath the dome" in English.
The Kubbealtı, Hall where the Divan meets. Located at the Topkapı Palace
Divan-ı Hümayun was established by Orhan Gazi, the second sultan of the Ottomans. The Divan-ı Hümayun is an institution inherited from the ancient East and eventually the Seljuks. In the first three centuries of the state, the Grand Vizier, the Kazasker (military judge), and the defterdar (responsable of the books / finance) formed a divan.

Until Mehmed II's reign, the Divan was a very simple and non protocol-based institution. The informality of the Divan and the enlargement of the state forced Mehmed II to reorganize its composition and its procedural side. The sultan himself began to sit behind iron bars and not participate directly. If there was a problem or a wrong decision was made, the sultan would strike the iron bars with his staff or close the curtain, indicating that the meeting was over. Then, according to protocol, the members of the divan would go to the arz odası (audience chamber) a bit further away to hear the sultan's opinion and final decision.

Today’s Divan Hall was built during the reign of Suleyman the Magnificent. Above it, there is a pointed tower called “kasr-ı adıl.” (Tower/Mansion of Justice) When viewed from the sea, it is a structure that poetically symbolizes the grandeur and silhouette of the state. It was originally a wooden tower but was rebuilt in masonry in the 18th century.

During the 16th century, the divan would convene four times a week. On Fridays, an appellate divan would be held as the Empire's highest court. The grand vizier undoubtedly presided over the divan, and after him, especially in the 16th century, there were four viziers of rank. If they held the rank of vizierate, Kaptan-ı Derya (the captain of the sea) and the Janissary Agha (Head of the Janissary Corps) would also attend. 

Who else was there? The famous officials of the state.

The Nişancı (court calligrapher) or “sealer”, as the original duty of the nişancı was to seal royal precepts. He also prepared the tımar decrees which were land grants by the sultan in return for yearly guaranteed tax collection and cavalry recruitment. He also held the divan‘s records. After wars, a cadastral survey of the newly conquered land would be arranged by the Nişancı in two copies, one of which was kept in the Palace. 

The person subordinate to the nişancı was the reîsü’l-küttâb, (the chief clerk) or the first chancellor. In Western states, this person would rise to the position of prime minister or head of government. In Turkey's case, he became the minister of foreign affairs.

Reîsü’l-küttâb handled non-financial correspondence of the Divan-ı Hümayun. All embassy writings and directives would pass through his hands. They well kept records and followed the political situations closely. Over time, the reîsü’l-küttâb, acquired such detailed knowledge of the political environment and events that during the negotiations of the Treaty of Karlowitz (1699), the reîsü’l-küttâb Rami Mehmet Efendi was the foremost negotiator. Eventually, Rami Efendi also became the grand vizier and retired with the title of pasha.

Reîsü’l-küttâb was eventually transferred to the Sublime Porte2 and the office of the reîsü’l-küttâb took on many new duties. Towards the end of the 17th century, the increasing centralization of bureaucracy and the resulting intensification of bureaucratic tasks increased the burden on the grand viziers. Although not officially, many bureaucratic tasks were effectively delegated to the reîsü’l-küttâb. For example, in addition to bureaucratic duties such as using the grand vizier's decrees more extensively, preparing summaries independently on behalf of the grand vizier, and conducting preliminary negotiations with ambassadors in the developing Foreign Affairs, the reîsü’l-küttâb, along with the grand vizier's deputy, took on many of the grand vizier's responsibilities, especially during military campaigns. As a result of the distribution of the grand vizier's bureaucratic authority at the Sublime Porte, the office of the reîsü’l-küttâb became one of the three major offices of the Sublime Porte.3 In the 1830s,  Mahmut II made the reîsü’l-küttâb the foreign minister.

Apart from the grand vizier, nişancı and reîsü’l-küttâb came the viziers with advisory roles. These were promoted beylerbeyis4 or clerks from the kalem erbabı (expert writers/pensmen).

Usually, retired viziers and grand viziers were also invited. This is not unique to Turkish political tradition; the "minister without portfolio" or the "chairless minister" in the English cabinet is an example of this in the western states.

An understanding of a divan independent of the ruler undoubtedly developed in England. George I and II came from Hanover and persistently did not learn English. After a while, they got bored of cabinet meetings and stopped attending leaving the divan independently execute state affairs.

In the Ottoman Empire, almost no divan meetings were held in the 18th century. This period, which we call the stagnation period, required quick decision-making. The urgency of reforms did not allow for the protocol of this divan. In this period the cabinet council emerged, and the Kubbealtı or Divan-ı Hümayun remained empty. 

What was the procedure for a divan meeting?

After the morning prayer at Hagia Sophia, one would ride a horse to the Bab-ı Selam5. Then, dismounting, one would walk to the Kubbealtı (the divan hall). In hot months, beverages were consumed, and then the meeting would start with the ceremonial entrance of the grand vizier.

One person was naturally absent; the Şeyhülislam6 did not attend the Divan-ı Hümayun. The decrees issued in the divan would be taken to him for approval, and in the Ottoman Empire, there was nothing that the şeyhülislam would not approve of once the Divan-ı Hümayun had approved it. It was symbolic.

When the cabinet was established in the 18th century, the şeyhülislam6 would start attending the meetings, even as the second person after the grand vizier. The involvement of Islam in state affairs began from this point, continuing until 1924 when the phrase "the religion of the state is Islam" was removed from the constitution by the Grand National Assembly and the şeyhülislam was replaced with diyanet işleri başkanı (president of religious affairs).

Meetings in the Divan-ı Hümayun did not require speaking loudly like in the Roman Senate nor did it require a certain rhetoric. The discussions were rather held in a very low tone and with a certain polite manner. The door of the Kubbealtı would be kept open. So the deliberations in the divan could be heard by those sitting outside.

Issues from the provinces and developments in places like Austria and Venice were discussed. However, no votes were taken or decisions made in the divan. After the meeting, they would go to the arz odası (audience chamber) and the sultan would note his decision or approval of the discussions in the mühimme defteri, the registers in which copies of the decrees issued were recorded. Another topic discussed in the divan was religious freedom and conversion. If you decided to convert from Christianity to Islam or from Judaism to Christianity, you could bring this matter to the divan and ask for some money to start a new life. This matter was particularly important as changing religions was not a matter of conviction but a matter of law. Because of the Millet system conversion meant changing the law under which you lived and socially it meant changing your community.

Which matters were discussed in the divan and how informed were the attendees?

During the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent, in an empire stretching from the shores of Budapest to Baghdad, from the plains of Ukraine to Somalia, from Algeria to the Black Sea, approximately 2000 important letters were transported from one point to another at all times. A very rich and effective communication network was established, allowing constant awareness of events everywhere through external and internal correspondence. Every letter received was copied and archived, which is why there were about 50 clerks working for the divan. Half of these clerks were young, a kind of intern, and when they completed their training, they were sent to the provinces to report the happenings.

The most pressing work was done within the provinces. The local responsables and beylerbeyis placed at the head of the provinces were responsible for tasks such as tax collection, recruiting soldiers, and suppressing rebellions. They would send reports on how these tasks were going or requests for assistance to Istanbul. This was very important because this tradition of letters, archives, and reports had always existed in Turkish states since the turn of the first millennia allowing for a rich accumulation of written tradition.
  1. This word is borrowed from Middle Persian “dīvān,” meaning “writing council, secretariat.” This term evolved from the unattested Old Persian form *dipi-vahana-, meaning “writing house.” This form is cognate with Akkadian “duppu,” meaning “writing tablet.” This Akkadian word is borrowed from Sumerian “dup-,” meaning “writing.”
    Additional explanation: The Iranian word ultimately corresponds to the Arabic “maktab” (writing house) and “maktūb” (written thing). The Italian “dogana,” French “douane,” and Spanish “aduana” forms for “customs” are borrowed from Arabic. In the 20th century, the meaning of “sofa” emerged, which corresponds to “a place for receiving guests, assembly place.” ↩︎
  2. The name given to the Ottoman gouvernement that operated under the grand vizier ↩︎
  3. Among these, kethüda bey (the deputy chief) was the grand vizier’s chief assistant and primarily managed the grand vizier’s relations with the provincial administration. Çavuşbaşı (The office of the chief of protocol), an ancient position, was effectively the personnal-aid of reîsü’l-küttâb and also became the third major office at the Sublime Porte until 1836 when the position was officially suppresed. ↩︎
  4. The Beylerbeyi is a type of military dictator stricto sensu, that also appears in Turkish states such as the Altınordu and the Sultanate of Rûm under the title “melikü’l-ümerâ.” It is a title given especially to proven commanders, known as subutays, who were believed to guarantee a decisive military victory in situations where the ruler could not go to war or in extremely critical conditions. In pre-Ottoman states, these Beylerbeyis, with their extensive authority and military charisma, were feared for their potential to incite rebellions. However, in the Ottoman Empire, they held less authority.

    For the Ottomans the term Beylerbeyi was used to mean governors of provinces established after new conquests with military and administrative powers. In addition, during the 15th century, the terms beylerbeyilik (like a lordship-protectorate) and Rumeli beylerbeyiliği (lordship-protectorate of Romanlands) were used as ranks and titles. By the 19th century, with successive changes in the administrative organization, the term “vali” was officially adopted meanimng governor. However, the title of Rumeli Beylerbeyi (Beylerbeyi of the Romanlands, Balkans) continued to exist as an honorary title until the end of the empire.

    Additional information: In the Ilkhanate, the first of the four “emîr-i ulus” (Lord of the Nation) responsible for the military administration of the country was called the Beylerbeyi and resided in the capital. ↩︎
  5. The Palace gate marking the border of sultans absolute control with general public land. ↩︎
  6. Alternative spelling sheikhulislam head of religious affaires in the Ottoman Empire. ↩︎
  7. Alternative spelling sheikhulislam head of religious affaires in the Ottoman Empire. ↩︎

Keşfet